Knowledge Is Power

Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.
Artificial Intelligence is the branch of computer science concerned with making computers behave like humans. The term was coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Artificial intelligence includes:

• Games Playing: programming computers to play games such as chess and checkers


• Expert Systems: programming computers to make decisions in real-life situations (for example, some expert systems help doctors diagnose diseases based on symptoms)


• Natural Language: programming computers to understand natural human languages


• Neural Networks: Systems that simulate intelligence by attempting to reproduce the types of physical connections that occur in animal brains


• Robotics: programming computers to see and hear and react to other sensory stimuli

Currently, no computers exhibit full artificial intelligence (that is, are able to simulate human behavior). The greatest advances have occurred in the field of games playing. The best computer chess programs are now capable of beating humans. In May,1997, an IBM super-computer called Deep Blue defeated world chess champion Gary Kasparov in a chess match.
In the area of robotics, computers are now widely used in assembly plants, but they are capable only of very limited tasks. Robots have great difficulty identifying objects based on appearance or feel, and they still move and handle objects clumsily.
Natural-language processing offers the greatest potential rewards because it would allow people to interact with computers without needing any specialized knowledge. You could simply walk up to a computer and talk to it. Unfortunately, programming computers to understand natural languages has proved to be more difficult than originally thought. Some rudimentary translation systems that translate from one human language to another are in existence, but they are not nearly as good as human translators.
There are also voice recognition systems that can convert spoken sounds into written words, but they do not understand what they are writing; they simply take dictation. Even these systems are quite limited -- you must speak slowly and distinctly.
In the early 1980s, expert systems were believed to represent the future of artificial intelligence and of computers in general. To date, however, they have not lived up to expectations. Many expert systems help human experts in such fields as medicine and engineering, but they are very expensive to produce and are helpful only in special situations.
Today, the hottest area of artificial intelligence is neural networks, which are proving successful in an umber of disciplines such as voice recognition and natural-language processing.
There are several programming languages that are known as AI languages because they are used almost exclusively for AI applications. The two most common are LISP and Prolog.

Fourth Generation - 1971-Present: Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits we rebuilt onto a single silicon chip. A silicon chip that contains a CPU. In the world of personal computers,the terms microprocessor and CPU are used interchangeably. At the heart of all personal computers and most workstations sits a microprocessor. Microprocessors also control the logic of almost all digital devices, from clock radios to fuel-injection systems for automobiles.
Three basic characteristics differentiate microprocessors:

• Instruction Set: The set of instructions that the microprocessor can execute.


• Bandwidth: The number of bits processed in a single instruction.


• Clock Speed: Given in megahertz (MHz), the clock speed determines how many instructions per second the processor can execute.

In both cases, the higher the value, the more powerful the CPU. For example, a 32-bit microprocessor that runs at 50MHz is more powerful than a 16-bitmicroprocessor that runs at 25MHz.
What in the first generation filled an entire room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004chip, developed in 1971, located all the components of the computer - from the central processing unit and memory to input/output controls - on a single chip.
Abbreviation of central processing unit, and pronounced as separate letters. The CPU is the brains of the computer. Sometimes referred to simply as the processor or central processor, the CPU is where most calculations take place. In terms of computing power,the CPU is the most important element of a computer system.
On large machines, CPUs require one or more printed circuit boards. On personal computers and small workstations, the CPU is housed in a single chip called a microprocessor.
Two typical components of a CPU are:

• The arithmetic logic unit (ALU), which performs arithmetic and logical operations.


• The control unit, which extracts instructions from memory and decodes and executes them, calling on the ALU when necessary.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.
As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation computers also saw the development of GUI's, the mouse and handheld devices

Third Generation - 1964-1971: Integrated Circuits

 

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips, called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.
A nonmetallic chemical element in the carbon family of elements. Silicon - atomic symbol "Si" - is the second most abundant element in the earth's crust, surpassed only by oxygen. Silicon does not occur uncombined in nature. Sand and almost all rocks contain silicon combined with oxygen, forming silica. When silicon combines with other elements, such as iron, aluminum or potassium, a silicate is formed. Compounds of silicon also occur in the atmosphere, natural waters,many plants and in the bodies of some animals.
Silicon is the basic material used to make computer chips, transistors, silicon diodes and other electronic circuits and switching devices because its atomic structure makes the element an ideal semiconductor. Silicon is commonly doped, or mixed,with other elements, such as boron, phosphorous and arsenic, to alter its conductive properties.
A chip is a small piece of semi conducting material(usually silicon) on which an integrated circuit is embedded. A typical chip is less than ¼-square inches and can contain millions of electronic components(transistors). Computers consist of many chips placed on electronic boards called printed circuit boards. There are different types of chips. For example, CPU chips (also called microprocessors) contain an entire processing unit, whereas memory chips contain blank memory.
Semiconductor is a material that is neither a good conductor of electricity (like copper) nor a good insulator (like rubber). The most common semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. These materials are then doped to create an excess or lack of electrons.
Computer chips, both for CPU and memory, are composed of semiconductor materials. Semiconductors make it possible to miniaturize electronic components, such as transistors. Not only does miniaturization mean that the components take up less space, it also means that they are faster and require less energy.
Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Second Generation - 1956-1963: Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation computer. Transistor is a device composed of semiconductor material that amplifies a signal or opens or closes a circuit. Invented in 1947 at Bell Labs, transistors have become the key ingredient of all digital circuits, including computers. Today's latest microprocessor contains tens of millions of microscopic transistors.
Prior to the invention of transistors, digital circuits were composed of vacuum tubes, which had many disadvantages. They were much larger, required more energy, dissipated more heat, and were more prone to failures. It's safe to say that without the invention of transistors, computing as we know it today would not be possible.
The transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late 50s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube,allowing computers to become smaller, faster, cheaper,more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.
Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic, or assembly, languages,which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.
The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. A magnetic drum,also referred to as drum, is a metal cylinder coated with magnetic iron-oxide material on which data and programs can be stored. Magnetic drums were once use das a primary storage device but have since been implemented as auxiliary storage devices.
The tracks on a magnetic drum are assigned to channels located around the circumference of the drum, forming adjacent circular bands that wind around the drum. A single drum can have up to 200 tracks. As the drum rotates at a speed of up to 3,000 rpm, the device's read/write heads deposit magnetized spots on the drum during the write operation and sense these spots during a read operation. This action is similar to that of a magnetic tape or disk drive.
They were very expensive to operate and in addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the cause of malfunctions. First generation computers relied on machine language to perform operations, and they could only solve one problem at a time. Machine languages are the only languages understood by computers. While easily understood by computers, machine languages are almost impossible for humans to use because they consist entirely of numbers. Computer Programmers, therefore, use either high level programming languages or an assembly language programming. An assembly language contains the same instructions as a machine language, but the instructions and variables have names instead of being just numbers.
Programs written in  high level programming languages retranslated into assembly language or machine language by a compiler. Assembly language program retranslated into machine language by a program called an assembler (assembly language compiler).
Every CPU has its own unique machine language. Programs must be rewritten or recompiled, therefore, to run on different types of computers. Input was based onpunch card and paper tapes, and output was displayed on printouts.
The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census Bureau in 1951.
Acronym for Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer, the world's first operational electronic digital computer, developed by Army Ordnance to compute World War II ballistic firing tables. The ENIAC, weighing 30 tons, using 200 kilowatts of electric power and consisting of 18,000 vacuum tubes,1,500 relays, and hundreds of thousands of resistors,capacitors, and inductors, was completed in 1945. In addition to ballistics, the ENIAC's field of application included weather prediction, atomic-energy calculations, cosmic-ray studies, thermal ignition,random-number studies, wind-tunnel design, and other scientific uses. The ENIAC soon became obsolete as the need arose for faster computing speeds.

Modern Computers Defined

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery -- wires, transistors, and circuits -- is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software.
All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components:

memory: enables a computer to store, at least temporarily, data and programs.

mass storage device: allows a computer to permanently retain large amounts of data. Common mass storage devices include disk drives and tape drives.

input device: usually a keyboard and mouse, the input device is the conduit through which data and instructions enter a computer.

output device: a display screen, printer, or other device that lets you see what the computer has accomplished.

central processing unit (CPU): the heart of the computer, this is the component that actually executes instructions.

In addition to these components, many others make it possible for the basic components to work together efficiently. For example, every computer requires a bus that transmits data from one part of the computer to another.

What is a Computer?

A computer is a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of a computer are: it responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it can execute a prerecorded list of instructions (a program).

Apple Inc. (NASDAQ: AAPL), formerly Apple Computer, Inc., is an American multinational corporation headquartered in Cupertino, California that designs, develops, and sells consumer electronics, computer software, and personal computers.

 


Unknown is whether the Acer brand will continue to become popular in the U.S. In today’s conference call about the Gateway acquisition, Acer President Gianfranco Lanci said he plans to keep all three brands (that’s Acer, Gateway and eMachines).
But it hasn’t been determined how the brands will be presented to consumers. Gateway could be the premium brand in the U.S., but not overseas. Emachines, however, will probably still be the low-end brand since its computers start in the sub-$400 range.
However they decide and whether or not the acquisition is completed, expect to hear more about Acer. The company is determined to dominate the computer industry. Today’s news will make the combined company the world’s third largest PC maker, ahead of Lenovo.
And another Gateway tidbit from today, the Irvine company is buying the Packard Bell brand as part of an agreement with Lap Shun “John” Hui, the former owner of eMachines who still owns a 4.9 percent stake in Gateway. He gave Gateway the first right to Packard Bell and Gateway said early Monday that it will take Hui up on his offer.
That means, said David Daoud, an IDC analyst, Acer will be just a tad larger than Dell in Europe at 16.8 percent vs. Dell’s 16 percent.
Good for consumers? That, too, is not known. Lanci with Acer says this gives consumers and retailers more choice at the store. Daoud’s take is that this is definitely good for Gateway. For consumers? That remains to be determined.

Acer has been around since the 1970s, though I remember the brand most from the 1990s, when I bought my first computer. It was one of the companies that attempted to add color and design to the personal computer, hiring Frog Designs to come up with a sleeker design in a day when most PCs were beige (remember bland beige?). Acer Aspires were available in the then-shocking colors of charcoal gray and emerald green (image below).
But then, Acer disappeared. Even as a tech reporter covering computers, I had almost forgotten what happened to the Taiwanese company.
In 2001, Acer reorganized and split its two main product lines into two companies. Computers continued under Acer. Its monitors and other peripherals became BenQ, which is alive and well and has its U.S. headquarters in Irvine.
And then about two years ago, Acer started coming back. The Ferrari laptop caught my attention. But I haven’t paid close enough attention. Apparently in two years, Acer has gone from the nation’s No. 8 PC seller to No. 5, just behind Gateway. It’s U.S. market share in the second quarter, according to market researcher International Data Corp., grew to 5.2 percent. Not bad, considering Gateway’s was 5.6 percent.

Stan Shih was more than a typical business executive or a computer expert.  Instead, Shih is one of the few executives who made an effective transition between the very different worlds of engineering/computer programing and multi-billion dollar business executive.  Shih’s significance to the world began in 1971.  At that time, the Taiwan-born developer created Taiwan’s first desktop calculator.  Successfully marketing his calculator, Shih did not rest on his first major industrial accomplishment.  Instead, the next year, Shih helped form Qualitron Industrial Group and spearheaded the creation of the pen watch.
What Stan Shih became known for, at least in Asia, was founding a little computer company called Multitech International Corp.  Multitech International Corp. grew and it soon evolved into a computer manufacturer known as Acer.  Shih led the company from a $25,000 startup to become one of the largest computer manufacturers on Earth.  When Shih left Acer in 2004, it was fifth in the personal computer vending market.
In his tenure as Founder and CEO of Acer, virtually every respectable publication in the business world named him one of the most influential people in the world.  In 2006, Time Magazine credited Shih with revolutionizing Taiwan’s industrial sector to create the infrastructure to make it a dominant PC-manufacturer.  Shih deserves those accolades; it was his leadership and skill that nurtured the developing market to make it one of the most important technology sectors in history.  Far from the toys and trinkets Taiwan produced before, Shih’s Acer made a viable, seemingly limitless, production industry for the country.
Since retiring from the day-to-day management of Acer, Stan Shih has shifted his focus to business pursuits.  Never forgetting how the IT industry made his career, Stan Shih founded iD SoftCapital, which is a financing company for emerging technology companies.  As the Group Chairman of iD SoftCapital, Stan Shih continues to shape the technology world by making business decisions that fund what he believes are the most profitable emerging technologies.
From the desktop calculator to the next generation of computer and electronics products, Stan Shih has left an indelible footprint on the world!
About RESCUECOM:

People who read this blog are probably familiar with Acer, which seemed to spring out of nowhere in the past two years. We all “oohhed and ahhed” at its hot Ferrari laptops (on right), inspired by the Formula One race car.

The evolution of HTML has essentially stopped. Instead, HTML is being replaced by a new language, called XHTML. XHTML is in many ways similar to HTML, but is designed to work with the new eXtensible Markup Language, or XML, that will soon serve as the core language for designing all sorts of new Web applications, in which XHTML will be only one of many "languages." But, XHTML is designed to work with these other language, so that different documents, in different languages, can be easily mixed together.

 Flash was formerly called "Macromedia Flash", but is now relabeled as "Adobe Flash" since Adobe purchased Macromedia software in 2005.

Flash is streaming animation for web pages. Sometimes Flash is a portion of an html web page, and sometimes a web page is made entirely of Flash. Either way, Flash files are called "Flash movies". These are special .swf format files that beam to your web browser screen as you watch them.

AmazingDown Studio – Claims speeds up to 500% faster than built-in download managers. Includes proxy support, bandwidth limiting, Internet Explorer integration, and many more powerful features.
BlackWidow – Great app that scans the site and lists all the links. It will then download them for you
Chrysanth Download Manager – Powerful batch downloader that integrates with Internet Explorer.
ConnectFusion – Fast (some sources claim speeds 50% faster than built-in download managers) and easy to use download manager. Free software.

Download Accelerator Manager – Includes proxy support, a scheduler, an ability to follow redirects, a free space management gauge, an auto shutdown feature, and integration with Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Netscape, Mozilla, Avant, and Maxthon. Freeware.
Download Accelerator Plus – Powerful app with advanced tools you won’t find anywhere else, like a file shredder and a cookie/history/temp cleaner. Also integrates with Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Netscape, and Mozilla. Freeware (ad-supported).

File Downloader – Small command-line app that can be automated with scripts and batch files.
File Rain – Basic download manager that claims speeds up to 800% faster than built-in managers..

GetGo – Claims speeds of up to 300% faster than built-in download managers, and includes virus detection and a scheduler. Integrates into Internet Explorer, Firefox, Netscape, and Flock.

iFetcher – Easy to use download manager that works with Internet Explorer. Freeware.
Internet Download Accelerator – Proxy support, plugins, an FTP browser, archive previewing, integration with Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Netscape, Mozilla, Maxthon, and NetCaptor, and much more are built into IDA.
Internet Download Manager – Supports proxies, redirects, firewalls, and more. Includes both a command-line version and a GUI version. Works with Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Netscape, Mozilla, MSN Explorer, Avant, Maxthon, and AOL.
LeechGet – LeechGet is one of the easiest to use programs in this list. Don’t let that fool you: it packs in a ton of features, such as automatic downloading, resume of broken downloads, a download timer, automatic hang-up and shutdown, and integration with Internet Explorer, Mozilla, and Opera. Free for personal use.
Mass Downloader – Great batch downloader with support for streaming media and integration with Firefox, Netscape, Mozilla, and Flock.

Orbit Downloader – Social site downloading is the main appeal of this program. It supports HTTP(S), FTP, Metalink, RTSP, PNM, MMS, NSS, RTMP, embedded video from sites like YouTube, music from sites like Pandora, and files from sites like Rapidshare. It works with Internet Explorer, Firefox, Opera, Netscape, and Maxthon. Freeware.

Star Downloader – Includes categorization, automatic installation of installation programs, automatic extracting of archives, proxy support, and virus scanning. Integrates into Internet Explorer, Firefox, and Opera.  (includes a basic free version as well).
TrueDownloader – HTTP/FTP support, proxy support, and ZIP previewing are available with this great app. Internet Explorer, Firefox, and Mozilla integration provided. Free software.
VisualWget – A Wget (see below) front-end with support for skins and Internet Explorer integration. Free software.
WackGet – A minimalistic app that does a great job. Integrates with Internet Explorer. Free software.
WinWGet – Another Wget (see below) front-end, with features such as clipboard monitoring, threaded downloading, job exporting, predefined user agents, ASP/PHP redirection, multiple FTP file and folder downloading, and bit rate limit. Free software.
YADA (Yet Another Download Accelerator) – Fast manager with drag ‘n’ drop, multithreading, batch downloading, and much more. Freeware.

Michael Dell, in 1984 founded Dell in order to directly serve their customers with computers that meet their needs. The company was called PC’s Limited and he was still a student at University of Texas at the time. The following year, Dell came out with their very first computer called the Turbo, which had an eight-megahertz processor. The major goal was to produce personal computer systems that were IBM compatible and were produced or entirely stock parts.
The company grossed 73 million dollars in the first year.The company went public in 1988

History of HP




Classmates Bill Hewlett, along with Dave Packard of Stanford University went ahead to find Hewlett Packard (HP) in the year 1939. The first product of the company, i.e. the audio oscillator, was manufactured in Palo Alto garage. It was one of the electronic instruments utilized by the sound engineers. Amongst the first customer of HP was 'Walt Disney Studios'. They purchased 8 oscillators for developing and testing a new-fangled sound system to make the film 'Fantasia'. The Hewlett Packard or HP Company is, at present, the topmost Corporation with respect to the information technology (IT industry). HP is the organization known for revolutionizing printing industry. Moreover, it's the pioneer in computer world. HP has, indeed, replaced Dell computers off late in the terms of computer shipments and sales.

Today, the Internet is positioned to be an international mechanism for communication and information exchange, the precursor of a global information superhighway. For this vision to be realized, one important requirement is to enable all languages to be technically available via the Internet, so that when a society is ready to absorb Internet technology, the language capability comes prepackaged. This is a nontrivial multilingual-information processing problem. To appreciate the extent of this issue, it is enough to know that few years ago, English was the native language of 80% of web users. Today, English is the mother tongue of less than half of web users. However, statistics show that the language of about 80% of web sites is English with only about 8% could be classified as multilingual 

From the numbers above, making a website universally usable is an important issue and ignoring it may lead to groups of users suffering isolation, rather than enjoying the true interoperability alluded to by the very name of the World Wide Web. However designing websites in languages other than English or multilingual websites confronts designers with many requirements. These requirements generally fall into three categories: data representation, data display and data input requirements . This paper studies these requirements, gives general recommendations for meeting them and provides a list of guidelines for web pages designers. It also gives examples of successful websites implemented in different languages.